RISET AKUNTANSI- BAB 8

Bab 7

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND POINTS TO PONDER

1. What are the differences between causal and correlational studies?
2. In what ways do lab experiments differ from field experiments?
3. Define the terms control and manipulation.Describe a possible lab experiment where you would need to control a variable.Further,include a possible variable over which you would have no control but which could affect your experiment.
4. Explain the possible ways in which you can control “niisance”variables.
5. What is internal validity and what are the threats to internal validity?
6. Explain the concept of ” trade-off between internal validity and external validity.”
7. Explain fully how you would demonstrate to machine operators and convince them that thorough knowledge of the operating policies and procedures ( by reading the manual) will eliminate almost all on-the-job accidents.
8. If a control group is a part of an experimental design,one need not worry about controlling other exogenous variables.”Discuss this statement.
9. A researcher wants to set up a lab experiment to test the effects of different kind of leadership styles on followers’attitudes.The three particular kinds of leadership styles she is interested in testing are autocratic,democratic,and participative.You are asked to enlist some students to play the part of followers.What cover story would you give the participants?
10. ”Because the external validity of lab experiments is not usually high,they are useless for investigating cause and effect relationships in organizations.”Comment on this statement.
11. ”Covariance ( i.e.,two variables varying together either positively or negatively) and control are integral aspects of experimental designs.”Discuss.
12. ”The Solomon four-group design is the answer to all our research questions pertaining to cause and effect relations because it guards against all the threats to internal validity .”Comment on this statement.
13. Below is a note on self-esteem.After reading it,apply what you have learned in this chapter and design a study after sketching the theoretical framework.

Answer

1. Difference:
Causal studies are studies where researchers want to discover the cause of one or more problems.
Study is correlational study in which researchers are interested to find important variables related to the problem.

2. Way the controls and manipulations are best done in an artificial setting-the laboratory-where the causal effects can be tested.

3. When we postulate cause and effect relationship between two variable x and y,it is possible that some other factor,say A,might also influence the dependent variable Y.
In such a case,it will not be possible to determine the extent to which Y occured only because of X,and to what extent Y was additionally influenced by the presence of the other factor A.So,
if the true effects of the training on learning is to be assessed ,then the learners previous experience has to be controlled.

4. One way of controlling the contaminating or "nuisance"variables is to match the various groups by taking the confounding characteristic and deliberately spreading them across groups.

5.Internal validity is proving the belief that can be placed in a cause-effect relationship found in the experimental design.
Identifying threats to internal validity
Let us examine each of the possible seven threats to internal validity in the context of the following scenario.
1.history effects
2.maturation
3.testing
4.instrumentation
5.selection bias
6.statistical regression
7.mortality

6. There is a trade-off between internal validity and external validity.
If we want high internal validity,we should be willing to settle for lower external validity and vice versa.
To ensure both types of validity,researchers usually try first to test the causal relationships in a tightly controlled artificial or lab setting,and once the relationships has been established,they try to test the causal relationship in a field experiment.

7. I will assure to the machine operator that someone who wants to work should be studied the operational policies and procedures. very influential to the work we do and if we go into these policies, we can avoid accidents on the job.

8.That in the control group there is a part of the experimental design, and therefore we do not have to worry about controlling the variables of exogenous because it's all encapsulated in the control group.
And we can also make it easier to conduct and control the variables that we make exogenous.

9.cover story which I will give to participants of a democratic leadership.

10. Because the external validity itself refers to what extent the results generalize to other settings causal studies.
Therefore useful to investigate the causal relationships within the organization is internal validity.

11. Covariance and control is an integral aspect of experimental design, because both are crucial and interconnected to one another in the experimental design.

12. That in the summary of the threat of internal validity is protected by a different experimental design, and if the subjects have all been random group, then the selection bias and regression statiscal avoided in all cases.
Therefore The Solomon four-group design is the answer for all questions concerning our research for causality because guard against all threats to internal validity

13.That in finding jobs and obtaining success, a person is required to have education, basic skills, and experience.
So that a person is satisfied with what they are doing is in accordance with the education, basic skills, and experience they have.
And therefore also that self-esteem plays an important role in acquiring human capital.








BAB 8

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND POINTS TO PONDER

1. What is meant by operational definition and why is it necessary?

2. Operationally define the following:
a. Sexual harassment
b. Diversity-positive environment
c. Career success

3. Describe the four types of scales.

4. How is the interval scale more sopkisticated than the nominal an ordinal scales?

5. Why is the ratio scale considered to be the most powerful of the four scales?

Answer:

1.operationalizing, or operationaliy defining a concept, to render it measurable, is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions,facets,or properties denoted by the concept. And operationally defining a concept which involves a series of steps.
Because operationally definitions are necessary to measure abstract concepts such as those that usually.

2.a. Sexual harassment is any kind of sexual connotation form of behavior that made unilaterally and not expected by the people who were targeted to generate a negative reaction: embarrassment, anger, hurt and so on in this person who becomes a victim of abuse.
Sexual harassment occurs when the perpetrator has more power than the victim. Power can be either a higher job position, economic power, "power" of sex is one to the other gender, the number of more personal, etc..

b. Agricultural biodiversity includes all components associated with the precautionary food and agriculture and agricultural ecosystems, the diversity of animals, plants and micro-organisms at the genetic level, species and ecosystems, which is required to maintain the function, structure and processes of the agricultural ecosystem. Agricultural biodiversity has benefits, among others: as a source of genetic resources for food and agriculture, providing environmental services to cycle nutrients, control pests and diseases, pollination, controlling erosion, regulating climate and carbon sinks, to maintain the hydrological cycle, and provides social roles, economic and cultural (traditional knowledge and tourism).
Departing from this World Biodiversity Day, the Ministry of Environment invites to all levels of society to preserve agricultural biodiversity through various positive and meaningful activities to realize sustainable development of Indonesia.

c. To headed toward a successful career that often people make every effort and attempt to make it happen. But the results sometimes do not maximal. Why be so, what was wrong from the methods that we have done. Have you committed to the career you are now living today. Here are some tips for your career success as expected.
• Select a job that is to your liking.
• Do not too many make targets. An important priority and focus. Remember, no human is perfect, including you.
• Is on self-discipline to achieve your goals.
• Do not hesitate to admit mistake.
• Do not forget, smile and laugh.

3.-The nominal scale highlights the differences by classifying objects or persons into groups,and provides the least amount of information on the variable.
-The ordinal scale provides some additional information by rank-ondering the categories of the nominal scale.
-The interval scale not only ranks,but also provides us with information on the magnitude of the differences in the variable.
-The ratio scale indicates not only the magnitude of the differences but also their proportion.

4.Because the interval scale not only ranks,but also provides us with information on the magnitude of the differences in the variable than the nominal scale.

5.Because the ratio scale indicates not only the magnitude of the differences but also their proportion.